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Sunday, December 26, 2010
Intel® Xeon® Processor 3600 (Intel® Workstation Processors)
Essential workstation : Intel® Xeon® processor 3600 series
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Powering the highest performing single-processor workstations , the Intel® Xeon® processor 3600 series , with intelligent performance features delivers the scalable performance necessary for advanced 3D designs , enabling digital content creation , engineering and financial users to create new ideas faster than ever before.
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Friday, December 10, 2010
Intel® Xeon® processor 3400 - Intel® Workstation processors
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features help improve your productivity by minimizing IT disruptions.
Wednesday, November 24, 2010
Intel® Core™ i7 Mobile Processor Extreme Edition
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Dominate and unleash your world of extreme gaming and multimedia by upgrading to the ultimate intelligent performance of laptops powered by Intel® Core™ i7 Mobile Processor Extreme Edition.
Control freaks , meet your revolutionary rig. Laptops with Intel Core i7 mobile processor Extreme Edition support Intel® Extreme Memory profile (Intel® XMP) and Intel Mobile Iron City 1.3 , the ultimate tuning utility making it simple to over clock and fine tune your mobile rig for incredible performance and battery life optimizations.
Plus , with dual discrete graphics support , you'll experience the performance for mind-blowing graphics on the go , so you can game in full living color and unprecedented realism.
Thursday, November 11, 2010
Intel® Core™ vPro™ Processor Family
Intel® Core™ vPro™ Processor FamilyThe intelligence of security and manageability on every chip
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Intelligent security and manageability on every chip
Offering expanded remote manageability , select laptop and desktop PCs-powered by the Intel Core vPro processor family-provide new KVM remote control capabilities along with enhanced data and asset security. Including programmable defense filters that systematically guard against and malicious attacks , the Intel Core vPro processor family helps to automatically protect PCs from tampering or disabling of security software.
Friday, October 29, 2010
Intel® Pentium® Desktop Processors
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Intel® Pentium® Desktop Processors include the innovative features of Intel® Core™ microarchitecture to deliver energy-efficient dual-core performance for cost-sensitive embedded designs.
For those processors based on 45nm or 65nm process technology , the dual-core processing capability provides simultaneous computing for multi-threaded applications and multi-tasking environments. Up to 1066MHz front-side bus speed helps support fast data transfer between the processors and the chipset.
The latest Intel® Pentium® processor G6950 is based on Intel® 32nm process technology , featuring integrated graphics to provide enhanced graphics performance that is needed for most of the embedded applications.
These dual-core processors are well suited for a wide range of performance-intensive , low-power embedded applications in smaller form factors such as retail and transaction solutions (i.e. , point-of-service terminals and AMs) , gaming platforms , Industrial control and automation and printing imaging. While incorporating advanced processor technology , these processors remain software-compatible with previous IA-32 processors.
Intel® Pentium® processors are validated with a variety of chipsets for a selection of graphics , security , manageability , power-efficiency , performance and memory error correction capabilities :
* Intel® Pentium® processor E6950 ? (32nm) is validated with the Intel® Q57 Express chipset and the
Intel® 3450 chipset.
* Intel® Pentium® processor E5300 ? (45nm) is validated with the Intel® G45 Express , Intel® Q45
Express and Intel® 3210 chipsets.
* Intel® Pentium® processor E5300 ? (45nm) is validated with the Intel® G45 Express , Intel® Q45
Express and Intel® 3210 chipsets.
* Intel® Pentium® processor E2060 ? (65nm) is validated with the Intel® Q35 Express and Intel®
Q965 Express chipsets.
Wednesday, October 6, 2010
Intel® Pentium® 4 Processors
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Rapid platform development is supported by the latest operating systems , applications and Intel® Architecture development tools , as well as a variety of validated reference designs from Intel. While incorporating Intel's mast advanced embedded processor technologies , the Intel Pentium 4 processor , Intel Pentium 4 processor with HT Technology and Intel Pentium 4 processor - M are software-compatible with previous Intel® Architecture processors.
Friday, September 24, 2010
Intel® EP80579 Integrated Processors
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This fully compatible product line (Intel Ep80579 Integrated Processor and Intel® EP80579 Integrated processor with Intel® Quickassit Technology) provides on outstanding combination of performance , power efficiency , footprint savings and cost-effectiveness compared to discrete , multi-chip solutions.
These integrated processors are ideal for small-to-medium business (SMB) and enterprise security and communications appliances (including VPN/firewall and unified threat management) , transaction terminals , interactive clients , print and imaging applications , wireless and WiMax access applications , SMB and home network attached storage , converged IP PBX solutions , converged access platforms , IP media servers , VoIP gateways and industrial automation applications.
Monday, September 20, 2010
Intel® Core™2 Quad Desktop Processor
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The Intel® Core™2 Quad Desktop Processor is the first quad-core processor within the Intel® Core™2 Processor product line with embedded life cycle support. Based on Intel® Core™ microarchitecture, it features four complete execution cores within a single processor , delivering exceptional performance and responsiveness in multi-threaded and multi-tasking environments. As a result , more instructions can be carried out per clock cycle , shorter and wider pipelines execute commands more quickly and improved bus lanes move data throughout the system faster.
The processor is validated with three different chipsets , providing a choice of flexible , quad-core-capable platforms for a wide range of embedded applications :
 |
| Embedded processor |
Design support
Find specifications and technical documents in the Intel® Embedded Design Center for this platform.
* Intel® Core™2 Quad Processor
* Intel® G45 Express chipset for embedded applications requiring enhanced media functionality such as
retail and transaction solutions (point-of-service , ATMs ,Kiosks , digital signage , transaction terminals)
gaming machines and medical appliances. Chipset consists of the Intel® 82G45 Graphics and Memory
controller Hub (GMCH) and Intel® I/O controller hub (ICH) 10.
* Intel® Q45 Express chipset for applications such as retail and transaction solutions (point-of-service
, ATMs , kiosks , digital signage , transaction terminals) in a networked retail environment. Chipset
consists of the Intel® 82Q45 Graphics and Memory Controller Hub (GMCH) and Intel® I/O Controller
Hub 10 DO.
* Intel® Q35 Express chipset for embedded applications needing graphics , manageability , data
protection and security such as retail and transaction solutions (point-of-service , ATMs , kiosks , digital
signage , transaction terminals) , industrial control and automation , gaming , print imaging and net work
security appliances. Chipset consists of the Intel® 82Q35 GMCH and the Intel® ICH9 DO.
* Intel® 3210 chipset is a server-class chipset that includes Error Correcting Code memory for embedded
applications needing high reliability , such as robotics on a factory floor , multi-function printers and
network security applications.
Thursday, September 9, 2010
Intel® Core™2 Duo Mobile Processors
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Intel® Core™2 Duo mobile processors are based on Intel® Core™ micro architecture and are designed to meet the needs of performance-intensive low power embedded applications that require graphics such as point-of-service terminals , ATMs , gaming platforms and system for industrial control and automation , digital security surveillance and medical imaging.
These processors include embedded lifecycle support , which protects system investments by enabling extended product availability for embedded customers.
Many of the Intel Core 2 Duo processors feature 45nm process technology which delivers even greater energy-efficient performance and offered in a range of thermal design power (TDP) specifications , ranging from 35 Watts to 10 Watts. Several of the processors are offered in a 956Ī¼FC-BGA (small form factor) package to help meet complex design challenges.
The Intel Core 2 Duo processors are validated with a variety of chisets including the Mobile Intel® GM45 Express chipset , Mobile Intel® GS45 Express chipset , Intel® 5100 memory controller Hub chipset , Intel® 3100 chipset , Mobile Intel® GME965 Express chipset , Mobile Intel® 945GME chipset and Intel® E7520 chipset to provide a breath of design choices.
Intel® Core™2 Duo Desktop Processors
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Intel® Core™2 Duo desktop processors are based on Intel® Core™ micro architecture and are designed to meet the needs of performance-intensive embedded applications that require graphics , video and manageability such as point-of-service terminals , ATMs , digital signage , gaming machines and medical appliances.
These processors include embedded life cycle support , which protects system investments by enabling extended product availability for embedded customers.
The Intel® Core™2 Duo processors E8400 and E7400 feature 45nm process technology to deliver even greater energy-efficiency performance.
The Intel Core 2 Duo processors are validated with a variety of chip sets including the Intel® G45 Express chipset , Intel® Q45Express chipset , Intel® Q35 Express chipset , Intel® 3210 chipset and Intel® Q965 Express chipset to provide a breath of design choices.
Friday, August 20, 2010
Intel® Core™ i7 Mobile processors
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Based on 32nm process technology , Intel® Core™ i7 processors reature intelligent performance , power efficiency , intergrated graphics and error correcting code (ECC) memory on industry-tandard x86 architecture. When paired with the mobile Intel® QM57 express chipset or mobile Intel® HM55 express chipset , this intergrated two-chip platform provides excellent graphics , memory and I/O bandwith as well as remote managment capabilities and reliability to meet the requirements of a broad rang of embedded applications-including ratail and transaction solutions , gaming platforms and industrial automation equipement.
The processors feature Dual-Core processing with industry-leading performance capabilities , including Intel® Turbo Boost Technology and Intel® Hyper Threading technology. Advanced Encryption Standard Instructions (AES-NI) help accelerate data encryption and decryption , and improved performance. While incoporating advance technology , these processor remain software-compatible with previous IA-32 architecture.
The graphics engine is intergrated into the processor , providing a two-chip solution with enhanced graphics performance compared with previous Intel® platforms. The memory controller hub is also intergrated into the processor , providing faster performance as well as board real state savings. Additionaly , developers can create one board design and scale their product line with a variety of performance-per-watt processors using the same socket. Thermal Design Power (TDP) options range from 18W to 35W.
Intel® Core™ i7 Desktop processors
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With faster , intelligent , multi-core technology that applies processing power where it is needed most , the new Intel® Core™ i7 processor delivers an incredible breakthrough in CPU perfomance that meets the needs of the most demanding embedded applications.
Base on Intel® 45nm process technology , the Intel Core i7 processor features Quad-Core processing and intelligent perfomance capabilities , such as Intel® Turbo Boost Technology and Intel® Hyper-Treading Technology (Intel® HT Technology) making it at the ideal choice for embedded market segments , such as retail , digital signage , gaming , medical , communications and industrial automation and control.
The Intel Core i7 processor is validated with an Intel® Q57 express chipset. The new 2-chip solution helps reduce memory latency as well as overall platform footprint.
Thursday, August 19, 2010
Intel® Core™ i5 Mobile processors
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Based on 32nm process technology , Intel® Core™ i5 processors feature intelligent performance , power efficiency , intergrated graphics and error correcting code (ECC) memory on industry-standard x86 architecture. When Paired with the mobile Intel® QM57 express chipset or mobile Intel® HM55 express chipset , this intergrated two-chip platform provides excellent graphics , memory and I/O bandwith , as well as remote managment capabilities and reliability to meet the requiremente of a broad range of embedded applications-including retail and transaction solutions , gaming platforms and industrial automation equipment.
The processors feature dual-core processing with industry-leading performance capabilities , including Intel® Turbo Boost Technology and Intel® Hyper-threading Technology (Intel® HT Technology). Advance Encryption Standard Instructions (AES-NI) help accelerate data encryption , and improve performance. While incorporating advanced technology , these processors remain software-compatible with previous
IA-32 processors.
The graphics engine is intergrated into the processor , providing a two-chip solution with enhanced graphics performance compared with previous Intel® platforms. The memory controller hub is also intergrated into the processor , providing faster performance as well as board real estate savings. Additionally , developers can create one board design and scale their product line with a variety of performance-per-watt processors using the same socket.
Intel® Core™ i5 Desktop processors
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Intel® Core™ i5 Desktop processors features the new Intel® Turbo Boost Technology that can automatically allocate processing power where it is needed. They are designed to meet the needs of performance-intensive embedded applications that require graphics , video and manageability , such as
poit-of-service terminals , ATMs , digital signage , gaming machines , and medical appliances.
These processors include embedded life cycle support , which protects system investments by enabling extented product availability for embedded customers.
Intel® Core™ i5-750 processor is validated with Intel® Q57 express chipset , while the Intel® Core™ i5-660 processor is validated with both the Intel Q57 express chipset and the Intel® 3450 chipset. The new 2-chip solution helps reduce memory latency as well as overall platform footprint.
Intel® Core™ i3 Desktop processors
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Based on Intel® 32nm process technology , the Intel® Core™ i3-540 processor features dual-core processing and Intel® Hyper-Threading Technology (Intel® HT)' which enables simultaneous multi-treading to help boost performance for parallel , multi-threaded applications.
Intel Core i3-540 processor can be paired with the Intel® Q57 express chipset or the Intel® 3450 chipset. Providing embedded developers with a choice of controller hub capabilities when designing applications in market segments such as retails , digital signage , gaming , medical , communications and industrial automation and control.
The new 2-chip solution provides enhanced graphics performance compared to previous Intel® platforms as the graphics engine is intergrated with the CPU. The memory controller hub has also has been intergrated into the CPU which contributes to faster performance and smaller overall platform footprints. Developers can create one board design and scale their product line with two different processors using the same socket. While incorporating advanced Processor technology , these processors remain software-compatible with previous IA-32 architecture.
Intel® Core™ Duo processors
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Intel Core Duo processors meet the needs of a wide range of low power embedded applications such as interactive clients and industrial automation equipment. While incorporating advance processor technology , they remain software-compatible with previous 32-bit intel® architecture processors.
Intel® Celeron® Desktop processors
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Disign support
Find specifications and technical documents in the Intel® embedded design center for this platform.
Intel® Celeron® Mobile processors
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The graphics engine is intergrated into the processor , providing a two-chip solution with enhanced graphics perfomance compared with previous Intel® platforms. The memory controller hub is also intergrated into the processor , providing faster performance as well as board real estate savings. Additionally , developers can create one board design and scale their product line with a variety of performance-per-watt processors using the same socket.
Intel® Celeron® M processor
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The Intel® Celeron® M processor family is the next generation of mobil value processors , providing exceptional performance and value combined with low power for thermally sensitive embedded and communications. These processors offer ideal solutions for small-to-medium business and enterprice communications , storage appliances , and value-oriented embedded devices like point of sale , KIOKs and ATMs.
Wednesday, August 18, 2010
Intel® Celeron® D processor
Intel® Celeron® D processorIntel® Celeron® processor D processors provide exciting technologies at a great value and are ideal for communications and embedded computing designs , including interactive clients , and industrial automation applications. These processors include embedded lifecycle support , which protects system investment by enabling extended product availability for embedded customers.
These processors are software compatible with previous IA-32 architecture and are validated with a variety of chipsets , which provide the flexibility for a wide range of embedded implementations. The Intel® Celeron® processor D processors 341? and 352? offer support for 64-bit computing with Intel® 64 architecture , and support excute disable bit , which can prevent certain classes of malicious "buffer overflow" attacks when combined with a supporting operating system.
Intel® Atom™ processor
The Inter® Atom™ processor enables a broad range device from factors , incuding smartphones , handhelds , tablets , netbooks , entry-level desktop PCs , and more devices that are a perfect companion to your PC. Anabling you to access email , instant massages (IM) , and the internet , Intel Atom processors also provide long battery life so you can stay conected on the go longer , and the processor can anable more enargy efficient designs as they are based on 45nm HI-K next genaration Intel® Core™ microarchitecture. Plus , Intel Atom processors include intergrated graphics , video , and memory controllers built right into the die.
Processor Slots
Processor Slots
After introducing the Pentium Pro with its integrated L2 cache, Intel discovered that the physical package it chose was very costly to produce. Intel was looking for a way to easily integrate cache and possibly other components into a processor package, and it came up with a cartridge or board design as the best way to do this. In order to accept its new cartridges, Intel designed two different types of slots that could be used on motherboards.
Slot 1 is a 242-pin slot that is designed to accept Pentium II, Pentium III, and most Celeron processors. Slot 2 is a more sophisticated 330-pin slot that is designed for the Pentium II and III Xeon processors, which are primarily for workstations and servers. Besides the extra pins, the biggest difference between Slot 1 and Slot 2 is the fact that Slot 2 was designed to host up to four-way or more processing in a single board. Slot 1 only allows single or dual processing functionality.
Note that Slot 2 is also called SC330, which stands for Slot Connector with 330 pins.
Slot 1 is a 242-pin slot that is designed to accept Pentium II, Pentium III, and most Celeron processors. Slot 2 is a more sophisticated 330-pin slot that is designed for the Pentium II and III Xeon processors, which are primarily for workstations and servers. Besides the extra pins, the biggest difference between Slot 1 and Slot 2 is the fact that Slot 2 was designed to host up to four-way or more processing in a single board. Slot 1 only allows single or dual processing functionality.
Note that Slot 2 is also called SC330, which stands for Slot Connector with 330 pins.
Slot 1 (SC242)
Slot 1, also called SC242 (Slot Connector 242 pins), is used by the SEC (Single Edge Cartridge) design used with the cartridge-type Pentium II/III and Celeron processors. Inside the cartridge is a substrate card that includes the processor and L2 cache. Unlike the Pentium Pro, the L2 cache was mounted on the circuit board and not within the same chip package as the processor. This allowed Intel to use aftermarket SRAM chips instead of making them internally and also allowed it to make processors with different amounts of cache easily. For example, the original Celeron was created by taking a Pentium II and simply leaving out the external cache chips.
Monday, March 22, 2010
Heat and Cooling Problems
Heat and Cooling Problems
Heat can be a problem in any high-performance system. The higher-speed processors normally consume more power and therefore generate more heat. The processor is usually the single most power-hungry chip in a system, and in most situations, the fan inside your computer case might not be capable of handling the load without some help.
Heat Sinks
To cool a system in which processor heat is a problem, you can buy (for less than $5, in most cases) a special attachment for the CPU chip called a heat sink, which draws heat away from the CPU chip. Many applications may need only a larger standard heat sink with additional or longer fins for a larger cooling area. Several heat-sink manufacturers are listed in the Vendor List, on the CD.
A heat sink works like the radiator in your car, pulling heat away from the engine. In a similar fashion, the heat sink conducts heat away from the processor so that it can be vented out of the system. It does this by using a thermal conductor (usually metal) to carry heat away from the processor into fins that expose a high amount of surface area to moving air. This allows the air to be heated, thus cooling the heat sink and the processor as well. Just like the radiator in your car, the heat sink depends on airflow. With no moving air, a heat sink is incapable of radiating the heat away. To keep the engine in your car from overheating when the car is not moving, auto engineers incorporate a fan. Likewise, there is always a fan somewhere inside your PC helping to move air across the heat sink and vent it out of the system. Sometimes the fan included in the power supply is enough, other times an additional fan must be added to the case, or even directly over the processor to provide the necessary levels of cooling.
The heat sink is clipped or glued to the processor. A variety of heat sinks and attachment methods exist. Figure 3.25 shows various passive heat sinks and attachment methods.
Figure 3.25 Passive heat sinks for socketed processors showing various attachment methods.
TIP
According to data from Intel, heat sink clips are the number-two destroyer of motherboards (screwdrivers are number one). When installing or removing a heat sink that is clipped on, make sure you don't scrape the surface of the motherboard. In most cases, the clips hook over protrusions in the socket, and when installing or removing the clips, it is very easy to scratch or scrape the surface of the board right below where the clip ends attach. I like to place a thin sheet of plastic underneath the edge of the clip while I work, especially if there are board traces that can be scratched in the vicinity.
Heat sinks are rated for their cooling performance. Typically the ratings are expressed as a resistance to heat transfer, in degrees centigrade per watt (°C/W), where lower is better. Note that the resistance will vary according to the airflow across the heat sink. To ensure a constant flow of air and more consistent performance, many heat sinks incorporate fans so they don't have to rely on the airflow within the system. Heat sinks with fans are referred to as active heat sinks (see Figure 3.26). Active heat sinks have a power connection, often using a spare disk drive power connector, although most newer motherboards now have dedicated heat sink power connections right on the board.
Figure 3.26 Active heat sinks for socketed processors.
Active heat sinks use a fan or other electric cooling device, which require power to run. The fan type is most common but some use a peltier cooling device, which is basically a solid-state refrigerator. Active heat sinks require power and normally plug into a disk drive power connector or special 12v fan power connectors on the motherboard. If you do get a fan-type heat sink, be aware that some on the market are very poor quality. The bad ones have motors that use sleeve bearings, which freeze up after a very short life. I only recommend fans with ball-bearing motors, which will last about 10 times longer than the sleeve-bearing types. Of course, they cost more, but only about twice as much, which means you'll save money in the long run.
Figure 3.27 shows an active heat sink arrangement on a Pentium II/III type processor. This is common on what Intel calls its "boxed processors," which are sold individually and through dealers.
Figure 3.27 An active (fan-powered) heat sink and supports used with Pentium II/III–type processors.
The passive heat sinks are 100 percent reliable, as they have no mechanical components to fail. Passive heat sinks (see Figure 3.28) are basically aluminum-finned radiators that dissipate heat through convection. Passive types don't work well unless there is some airflow across the fins, normally provided by the power supply fan or an extra fan in the case. If your case or power supply is properly designed, you can use a less-expensive passive heat sink instead of an active one.
Figure 3.28 A passive heat sink and supports used with Pentium II/III–type processors.
TIP
To function effectively, a heat sink must be as directly attached to the processor as possible. To eliminate air gaps and ensure a good transfer of heat, in most cases, you should put a thin coating of thermal transfer grease on the surface of the processor where the heat sink attaches. This will dramatically decrease the thermal resistance properties and is required for maximum performance.
To have the best possible transfer of heat from the processor to the heat sink, most heat sink manufacturers specify some type of thermal interface material to be placed between the processor and the heat sink. This normally consists of a zinc-based white grease (similar to what skiers put on their noses to block the sun), but can also be a special pad or even a type of double-stick tape. Using a thermal interface aid such as thermal grease can improve heat sink performance dramatically. Figure 3.29 shows the thermal interface pad or grease positioned between the processor and heat sink.
Figure 3.29 Thermal interface material helps transfer heat from the processor die to the heat sink.
Most of the newer systems on the market use an improved motherboard form factor (shape) design called ATX. Systems made from this type of motherboard and case allow for improved cooling of the processor due to the processor being repositioned in the case near the power supply. Also, most of these cases now feature a secondary fan to further assist in cooling. Normally the larger case-mounted fans are more reliable than the smaller fans included in active heat sinks. A properly designed case can move sufficient air across the processor, allowing for a more reliable and less-expensive passive (no fan) heat sink to be used.
CPU Operating Voltages
CPU Operating Voltages
One trend that is clear to anybody that has been following processor design is that the operating voltages have gotten lower and lower. The benefits of lower voltage are threefold. The most obvious is that with lower voltage comes lower overall power consumption. By consuming less power, the system will be less expensive to run, but more importantly for portable or mobile systems, it will run much longer on existing battery technology. The emphasis on battery operation has driven many of the advances in lowering processor voltage, because this has a great effect on battery life.
The second major benefit is that with less voltage and therefore less power consumption, there will be less heat produced. Processors that run cooler can be packed into systems more tightly and will last longer. The third major benefit is that a processor running cooler on less power can be made to run faster. Lowering the voltage has been one of the key factors in allowing the clock rates of processors to go higher and higher.
Until the release of the mobile Pentium and both desktop and mobile Pentium MMX, most processors used a single voltage level to power both the core as well as run the input/output circuits. Originally, most processors ran both the core and I/O circuits at 5 volts, which was later was reduced to 3.5 or 3.3 volts to lower power consumption. When a single voltage is used for both the internal processor core power as well as the external processor bus and I/O signals, the processor is said to have a single or unified power plane design.
When originally designing a version of the Pentium processor for mobile or portable computers, Intel came up with a scheme to dramatically reduce the power consumption while still remaining compatible with the existing 3.3v chipsets, bus logic, memory, and other components. The result was a dual-plane or split-plane power design where the processor core ran off of a lower voltage while the I/O circuits remained at 3.3v. This was originally called Voltage Reduction Technology (VRT) and first debuted in the Mobile Pentium processors released in 1996. Later, this dual-plane power design also appeared in desktop processors such as the Pentium MMX, which used 2.8v to power the core and 3.3v for the I/O circuits. Now most recent processors, whether for mobile or desktop use, feature a dual-plane power design. Some of the more recent Mobile Pentium II processors run on as little as 1.6v for the core while still maintaining compatibility with 3.3v components for I/O.
Knowing the processor voltage requirements is not a big issue with Socket 8, Socket 370, Socket A, Pentium Pro (Socket 8), or Pentium II (Slot 1 or Slot 2) processors, because these sockets and slots have special voltage ID (VID) pins that the processor uses to signal to the motherboard the exact voltage requirements. This allows the voltage regulators built in to the motherboard to be automatically set to the correct voltage levels by merely installing the processor.
Unfortunately, this automatic voltage setting feature is not available on Socket 7 and earlier motherboard and processor designs. This means you must normally set jumpers or otherwise configure the motherboard according to the voltage requirements of the processor you are installing. Pentium (Socket 4, 5, or 7) processors have run on a number of voltages, but the latest MMX versions are all 2.8v, except for mobile Pentium processors, which are as low as 1.8v. Table 3.11 lists the voltage settings used by Intel Pentium (non-MMX) processors that use a single power plane. This means that both the CPU core and the I/O pins run at the same voltage.
Processor Slots
Processor Slots
After introducing the Pentium Pro with its integrated L2 cache, Intel discovered that the physical package it chose was very costly to produce. Intel was looking for a way to easily integrate cache and possibly other components into a processor package, and it came up with a cartridge or board design as the best way to do this. In order to accept its new cartridges, Intel designed two different types of slots that could be used on motherboards.
Slot 1 is a 242-pin slot that is designed to accept Pentium II, Pentium III, and most Celeron processors. Slot 2 is a more sophisticated 330-pin slot that is designed for the Pentium II and III Xeon processors, which are primarily for workstations and servers. Besides the extra pins, the biggest difference between Slot 1 and Slot 2 is the fact that Slot 2 was designed to host up to four-way or more processing in a single board. Slot 1 only allows single or dual processing functionality.
Note that Slot 2 is also called SC330, which stands for Slot Connector with 330 pins.
Slot 1 (SC242)
Slot 1, also called SC242 (Slot Connector 242 pins), is used by the SEC (Single Edge Cartridge) design used with the cartridge-type Pentium II/III and Celeron processors. Inside the cartridge is a substrate card that includes the processor and L2 cache. Unlike the Pentium Pro, the L2 cache was mounted on the circuit board and not within the same chip package as the processor. This allowed Intel to use aftermarket SRAM chips instead of making them internally and also allowed it to make processors with different amounts of cache easily. For example, the original Celeron was created by taking a Pentium II and simply leaving out the external cache chips.
Zero Insertion Force (ZIF) Sockets
Zero Insertion Force (ZIF) Sockets
When the Socket 1 specification was created, manufacturers realized that if users were going to upgrade processors, they had to make the process easier. The socket manufacturers found that it typically takes 100 pounds of insertion force to install a chip in a standard 169-pin screw Socket 1 motherboard. With this much force involved, you easily could damage either the chip or socket during removal or reinstallation. Because of this, some motherboard manufacturers began using Low Insertion Force (LIF) sockets, which typically required only 60 pounds of insertion force for a 169-pin chip. With the LIF or standard socket, I usually advise removing the motherboard—that way you can support the board from behind when you insert the chip. Pressing down on the motherboard with 60–100 pounds of force can crack the board if it is not supported properly. A special tool is also required to remove a chip from one of these sockets. As you can imagine, even the low insertion force was relative, and a better solution was needed if the average person was going to ever replace his CPU.
Manufacturers began inserting special Zero Insertion Force (ZIF) sockets in their later Socket 1 motherboard designs. Since then, virtually all processor sockets have been of the ZIF design. Note, however, that a given Socket X specification has nothing to do with whether it is ZIF, LIF, or standard; the socket specification covers only the pin arrangement. These days, nearly all motherboard manufacturers are using ZIF sockets. These sockets almost eliminate the risk involved in upgrading because no insertion force is necessary to install the chip. Most ZIF sockets are handle-actuated; you lift the handle, drop the chip into the socket, and then close the handle. This design makes replacing the original processor with the upgrade processor an easy task.
Because of the number of pins involved, virtually all CPU sockets from Socket 2 through the present are implemented in ZIF form. This means that since the 486 era, removing the CPU from most motherboards does not require any tools.
Single Edge Contact (SEC) and Single Edge Processor (SEP) Packaging
Single Edge Contact (SEC) and Single Edge Processor (SEP) Packaging
Abandoning the chip-in-a-socket approach used by virtually all processors until this point, the Pentium II/III chips are characterized by their Single Edge Contact (SEC) cartridge design. The processor, along with several L2 cache chips, is mounted on a small circuit board (much like an oversized memory SIMM), which is then sealed in a metal and plastic cartridge. The cartridge is then plugged into the motherboard through an edge connector called Slot 1, which looks very much like an adapter card slot.
By placing the processor and L2 cache as separate chips inside a cartridge, Intel now has a CPU module that is easier and less expensive to make than the Pentium Pro that preceded it. The Single Edge Contact (SEC) cartridge is an innovative—if a bit unwieldy—package design that incorporates the backside bus and L2 cache internally. Using the SEC design, the core and L2 cache are fully enclosed in a plastic and metal cartridge. These subcomponents are surface mounted directly to a substrate (or base) inside the cartridge to enable high-frequency operation. The SEC cartridge technology allows the use of widely available, high-performance industry standard Burst Static RAMs (BSRAMs) for the dedicated L2 cache. This greatly reduces the cost compared to the proprietary cache chips used inside the CPU package in the Pentium Pro.
A less expensive version of the SEC is called the Single Edge Processor (SEP) package. The SEP package is basically the same circuit board containing processor and (optional) cache as the Pentium II, but without the fancy plastic cover. The SEP package plugs directly into the same Slot 1 connector used by the standard Pentium II. Four holes on the board allow for the heat sink to be installed.
Slot 1 is the connection to the motherboard and has 242 pins. The Slot 1 dimensions are shown in Figure 3.6. The SEC cartridge or SEP processor is plugged into Slot 1 and secured with a processor-retention mechanism, which is a bracket that holds it in place. There may also be a retention mechanism or support for the processor heat sink. Figure 3.7 shows the parts of the cover that make up the SEC package. Note the large thermal plate used to aid in dissipating the heat from this processor. The SEP package is shown in Figure 3.8.
Figure 3.6 Pentium II Processor Slot 1 dimensions (metric/English).
Figure 3.7 Pentium II Processor SEC package parts.
Figure 3.8 Celeron Processor SEP package front-side view.
With the Pentium III, Intel introduced a variation on the SEC packaging called SECC2 (Single Edge Contact Cartridge version 2). This new package covers only one side of the processor board and allows the heat sink to directly attach to the chip on the other side. This direct thermal interface allows for better cooling, and the overall lighter package is cheaper to manufacture. Note that a new Universal Retention System, consisting of a new design plastic upright stand, is required to hold the SECC2 package chip in place on the board. The Universal Retention System will also work with the older SEC package as used on most Pentium II processors, as well as the SEP package used on the slot based Celeron processors, making it the ideal retention mechanism for all Slot 1-based processors. Figure 3.9 shows the SECC2 package.
Figure 3.9 SECC2 packaging used in newer Pentium II and III processors.
The main reason for going to the SEC and SEP packages in the first place was to be able to move the L2 cache memory off the motherboard and onto the processor in an economical and scalable way. Using the SEC/SEP design, Intel can easily offer Pentium II/III processors with more or less cache and faster or slower cache.
PGA Chip Packaging
PGA Chip Packaging
PGA packaging has been the most common chip package used until recently. It was used starting with the 286 processor in the 1980s and is still used today for Pentium and Pentium Pro processors. PGA takes its name from the fact that the chip has a grid-like array of pins on the bottom of the package. PGA chips are inserted into sockets, which are often of a ZIF (Zero Insertion Force) design. A ZIF socket has a lever to allow for easy installation and removal of the chip.
Most Pentium processors use a variation on the regular PGA called SPGA (Staggered Pin Grid Array), where the pins are staggered on the underside of the chip rather than in standard rows and columns. This was done to move the pins closer together and decrease the overall size of the chip when a large number of pins is required. Figure 3.5 shows a Pentium Pro that uses the dual-pattern SPGA (on the right) next to an older Pentium 66 that uses the regular PGA. Note that the right half of the Pentium Pro shown here has additional pins staggered among the other rows and columns.
Figure 3.5 PGA on Pentium 66 (left) and dual-pattern SPGA on Pentium Pro (right).
Processor Manufacturing
Processor Manufacturing
Processors are manufactured primarily from silicon, the second-most common element on the planet (only the element oxygen is more common). Silicon is the primary ingredient in beach sand; however, in that form it isn't pure enough to be used in chips.
The manner in which silicon is formed into chips is a lengthy process that starts by growing pure silicon crystals via what is called the Czochralski method (named after the inventor of the process). In this method, electric arc furnaces transform the raw materials (primarily quartz rock which is mined) into metallurgical-grade silicon. Then to further weed out impurities the silicon is converted to a liquid, distilled, and then redeposited in the form of semiconductor-grade rods, which are 99.999999 percent pure. These rods are then mechanically broken up into chunks and packed into quartz crucibles, which are loaded into the electric crystal pulling ovens. There the silicon chunks are melted at over 2,500° Fahrenheit. To prevent impurities, the ovens are normally mounted on very thick concrete cubes often on a suspension to prevent any vibration which would damage the crystal as it forms.
Once the silicon is melted, a small seed crystal is inserted into the molten silicon, and slowly rotated (see Figure 3.3). As the seed is pulled out of the molten silicon, some of the silicon sticks to the seed and hardens in the same crystal structure as the seed. By carefully controlling the pulling speed (10 to 40 millimeters per hour) and temperature (approximately 2,500° F) the crystal grows with a narrow neck that then widens into the full desired diameter. Depending on the chips being made, each ingot is approximately eight or 12 inches in diameter and over five feet long, weighing hundreds of pounds.
Figure 3.3
Growing a pure silicon ingot in a high-pressure, high-temperature oven.
The ingot is then ground into a perfect 200mm- (eight-inch) or 300mm-diameter cylinder, with normally a flat cut on one side for positioning accuracy and handling. Each ingot is then cut with a high-precision diamond saw into over a thousand circular wafers, each less than a millimeter thick (see Figure 3.4). Each wafer is then polished to a mirror-smooth surface.
Figure 3.4
Slicing a silicon ingot into wafers with a diamond saw.
Chips are manufactured from the wafers using a process called photolithography. Through this photographic process, transistors and circuit and signal pathways are created in semiconductors by depositing different layers of various materials on the chip, one after the other. Where two specific circuits intersect, a transistor or switch can be formed.
The photolithographic process starts when an insulating layer of silicon dioxide is grown on the wafer through a vapor deposition process. Then a coating of photoresist material is applied and an image of that layer of the chip is projected through a mask onto the now light-sensitive surface.
Doping is the term used to describe chemical impurities added to silicon (which is naturally a non-conductor), creating a material with semiconductor properties. The projector uses a specially created mask, which is essentially a negative of that layer of the chip etched in chrome on a quartz plate. The Pentium III currently uses twenty or more masks to create six layers of metal and semiconductor interconnects.
As the light passes through a mask, the light is focused on the wafer surface, imprinting it with the image of that layer of the chip. Each individual chip image is called a die. A device called a stepper then moves the wafer over a little bit and the same mask is used to imprint another chip die immediately next to the previous one. After the entire wafer is imprinted with chips, a caustic solution washes away the areas where the light struck the photoresist, leaving the mask imprints of the individual chip vias (interconnections between layers) and circuit pathways. Then, another layer of semiconductor material is deposited on the wafer with more photoresist on top, and the next mask is used to produce the next layer of circuitry. Using this method, the layers and components of each chip are built one on top of the other, until the chips are completed.
The final masks add the metallization layers, which are the metal interconnects used to tie all the individual transistors and other components together. Most chips use aluminum interconnects today, although many will be moving to copper in the future. The first commercial PC chip using copper is the Athlon made in AMD's Dresden fab. Copper is a better conductor than aluminum and will allow smaller interconnects with less resistance, meaning smaller and faster chips can be made. The reason copper hasn't been used up until recently is that there were difficult corrosion problems to overcome during the manufacturing process that were not as much a problem with aluminum. As these problems have been solved, there will be more and more chips fabricated with copper interconnects.
A completed circular wafer will have as many chips imprinted on it as can possibly fit. Because each chip is normally square or rectangular, there are some unused portions at the edges of the wafer, but every attempt is made to use every square millimeter of surface.
The standard wafer size used in the industry today is 200mm in diameter, or just under eight inches. This results in a wafer of about 31,416 square millimeters. The Pentium II 300MHz processor, for example, was made up of 7.5 million transistors using a 0.35 micron (millionth of a meter) process. This process results in a die of exactly 14.2mm on each side, which is 202 square millimeters of area. This means that about 150 total Pentium II 300MHz chips on the .35 micron process could be made from a single 200mm-diameter wafer.
The trend in the industry is to go to both larger wafers and a smaller chip die process. Process refers to the size of the individual circuits and transistors on the chip. For example, the Pentium II 333MHz through 450MHz processors were made on a newer and smaller .25 micron process, which reduced the total chip die size to only 10.2mm on each side, or a total chip area of 104 square millimeters. On the same 200mm (8-inch) wafer as before, Intel can make about 300 Pentium II chips using this process, or double the amount over the larger .35 micron process 300MHz version.
The Pentium III in the 600MHz and faster speeds is built on a .18 micron process and has a die size of only 104 square millimeters, which is about 10.2mm on each side. This is the same size as the older Pentium II, even though the newer PIII has 28.1 million transistors (including the on-die L2 cache) compared to only 7.5 million for the Pentium II.
In the future, processes will move from .18 micron to .13 micron, and from 200mm (eight-inch) wafers to 300mm (12-inch) wafers. The larger 300mm wafers alone will allow for more than double the number of chips to be made, compared to the 200mm mostly used today. The smaller 0.13-micron process will allow more transistors to be incorporated into the die while maintaining a reasonable die size allowing for sufficient yield. This means the trend for incorporating L2 cache within the die will continue, and transistor counts will rise up to 200 million per chip or more in the future. The current king of transistors is the Intel Pentium III Xeon introduced in May 2000 with 2MB of on-die cache and a whopping 140 million transistors in a single die.
The trend in wafers is to move from the current 200mm (eight-inch) diameter to a bigger, 300mm (12-inch) diameter wafer. This will increase surface area dramatically over the smaller 200mm design and boost chip production to about 675 chips per wafer. Intel and other manufacturers expect to have 300mm wafer production in place during 2001. After that happens, chip prices should continue to drop dramatically as supply increases.
Note that not all the chips on each wafer will be good, especially as a new production line starts. As the manufacturing process for a given chip or production line is perfected, more and more of the chips will be good. The ratio of good to bad chips on a wafer is called the yield. Yields well under 50 percent are common when a new chip starts production; however, by the end of a given chip's life, the yields are normally in the 90 percent range. Most chip manufacturers guard their yield figures and are very secretive about them because knowledge of yield problems can give their competitors an edge. A low yield causes problems both in the cost per chip and in delivery delays to their customers. If a company has specific knowledge of competitors' improving yields, it can set prices or schedule production to get higher market share at a critical point. For example, AMD was plagued by low-yield problems during 1997 and 1998, which cost it significant market share. It has since solved the problems, and lately it seems Intel has had the harder time meeting production demands.
After a wafer is complete, a special fixture tests each of the chips on the wafer and marks the bad ones to be separated out later. The chips are then cut from the wafer using either a high-powered laser or diamond saw.
After being cut from the wafers, the individual die are then retested, packaged, and retested again. The packaging process is also referred to as bonding, because the die is placed into a chip housing where a special machine bonds fine gold wires between the die and the pins on the chip. The package is the container for the chip die, and it essentially seals it from the environment.
After the chips are bonded and packaged, final testing is done to determine both proper function and rated speed. Different chips in the same batch will often run at different speeds. Special test fixtures run each chip at different pressures, temperatures, and speeds, looking for the point at which the chip stops working. At this point, the maximum successful speed is noted and the final chips are sorted into bins with those that tested at a similar speed. For example, the Pentium III 750, 866, and 1000 are all exactly the same chip made using the same die. They were sorted at the end of the manufacturing cycle by speed.
One interesting thing about this is that as a manufacturer gains more experience and perfects a particular chip assembly line, the yield of the higher speed versions goes way up. This means that out of a wafer of 150 total chips, perhaps more than 100 of them check out at 1000MHz, while only a few won't run at that speed. The paradox is that Intel often sells a lot more of the lower-priced 933 and 866MHz chips, so it will just dip into the bin of 1000MHz processors and label them as 933 or 866 chips and sell them that way. People began discovering that many of the lower-rated chips would actually run at speeds much higher than they were rated, and the business of overclocking was born. Overclocking describes the operation of a chip at a speed higher than it was rated for. In many cases, people have successfully accomplished this because, in essence, they had a higher-speed processor already—it was marked with a lower rating only because it was sold as the slower version.
An interesting problem then arose: Unscrupulous vendors began taking slower chips and remarking them and reselling them as if they were faster. Often the price between the same chip at different speed grades can be substantial, in the hundreds of dollars, so by changing a few numbers on the chip the potential profits can be huge. Because most of the Intel and AMD processors are produced with a generous safety margin—that is, they will normally run well past their rated speed—the remarked chips would seem to work fine in most cases. Of course, in many cases they wouldn't work fine, and the system would end up crashing or locking up periodically.
At first the remarked chips were just a case of rubbing off the original numbers and restamping with new official-looking numbers. These were normally easy to detect. Remarkers then resorted to manufacturing completely new processor housings, especially for the plastic-encased Slot 1 and Slot A processors from Intel and AMD. Although it may seem to be a huge bother to make a custom plastic case and swap it with the existing case, since the profits can be huge, criminals find it very lucrative. This type of remarking is a form of organized crime and isn't just some kid in his basement with sandpaper and a rubber stamp.
Intel and AMD have seen fit to put a stop to some of the remarking by building overclock protection in the form of a multiplier lock into most of its newer chips. This is usually done in the bonding or cartridge manufacturing process, where the chips are intentionally altered so they won't run at any speeds higher than they are rated. Normally this involves changing the bus frequency (BF) pins on the chip, which control the internal multipliers the chip uses. Even so, enterprising individuals have found ways to run their motherboards at bus speeds higher than normal, so even though the chip won't allow a higher multiplier, you can still run it at a speed higher than it was designed.
Be Wary of PII and PIII Overclocking Fraud
Also note that unscrupulous individuals have devised a small logic circuit that bypasses the multiplier lock, allowing the chip to run at higher multipliers. This small circuit can be hidden in the PII or PIII cartridge, and then the chip can be remarked or relabeled to falsely indicate it is a higher speed version. This type of chip remarketing fraud is far more common in the industry than people want to believe. In fact, if you purchase your system or processor from a local computer flea market show, you have an excellent chance of getting a remarked chip. I recommend purchasing processors only from more reputable direct distributors or dealers. Contact Intel, AMD, or Cyrix, for a list of their reputable distributors and dealers.
I recently installed a 200MHz Pentium processor in a system that is supposed to run at a 3x multiplier based off a 66MHz motherboard speed. I tried changing the multiplier to 3.5x but the chip refused to go any faster; in fact, it ran at the same or lower speed than before. This is a sure sign of overclock protection inside, which is to say that the chip won't support any higher level of multiplier than it was designed for. Today, all Intel Pentium II and III processors are multiplier locked, which means the multiplier can no longer be controlled by the motherboard. This means that overclocking can be accomplished only by running the motherboard at a higher bus speed than the processor was designed for. My motherboard at the time included a jumper setting for an unauthorized speed of 75MHz, which when multiplied by 3x resulted in an actual processor speed of 225MHz. This worked like a charm, and the system is now running fast and clean. Many new motherboards have BIOS or jumper settings which can be used to tweak the motherboard bus speeds a few MHz higher than normal, which is then internally multiplied by the processor to even higher speeds. Note that I am not necessarily recommending overclocking for everybody; in fact, I normally don't recommend it at all for any important systems. If you have a system you want to fool around with, it is interesting to try. Like my cars, I always seem to want to hotrod my computers.
The real problem with the overclock protection as implemented by Intel and AMD is that the professional counterfeiter can still override it by inserting some custom circuitry underneath the plastic case enclosing the processor. This again is particularly a problem with the slot-based processors, since they use a case cover that can hide this circuitry. Socketed processors are much more immune to these remarking attempts. To protect yourself from purchasing a fraudulent chip, verify the specification numbers and serial numbers with Intel and AMD before you purchase. Also beware where you buy your hardware. Purchasing over online auction sites can be extremely dangerous since it is so easy to defraud the purchaser. Also the traveling computer show/flea market arenas can be a hotbed of this type of activity.
Fraudulent computer components are not limited to processors; I have seen fake memory (SIMMs/DIMMs), fake mice, fake video cards, fake cache memory, counterfeit operating systems and applications, and even fake motherboards. The hardware that is faked normally works, but is of inferior quality to the type it is purporting to be. For example, one of the most highly counterfeited pieces of hardware is the Microsoft mouse. They sell for $35 wholesale and yet I can purchase cheap mice from overseas manufacturers for as little as $2.32 each. It didn't take somebody long to realize that if they made the $2 mouse look like a $35 Microsoft mouse, they could sell it for $20 and people would think they were getting a genuine article for a bargain, while the thieves run off with a substantial profit.
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